Without Words, nothing can be Conveyed

 

Why is vocabulary development essential in TEFL learning?

Vocabulary accuracy renders human interlocution substantive.

In order to obtain accuracy, one has to hold a satisfying range of lexis.

It is advisable to develop eloquence, because its employment facilitates human interaction and communication.

TEFL teachers  share the need for developing dense and various lexis, and therefore they rely on creating synapses based on synonyms.

Yet, from a translator's perspective, synonyms do not exist.

Even among tautological terms, different word choice carries a different spirit, connotation, essence, sentiment and inference.

 Thus, different communicative effect

Consider the case of the intended meaning of memory and the potential options (synonyms): According to Merriam-Webster dictionary (the online edition) they could convey the concept of carrying a memory by employing one of the following: anamnesis, memory, recall, recollection, reminiscence, memento, memorial, reminder, token, commemorative, memorabilia, and nostalgia.

All terms denote the same notion- that of a past mental imagery, but different choices lead to different effects, as many of the terms are more poetic and hold a specific meaning of homesickness.

There hardly exists a set of words which can be used and evoke the same impact in all aspects: linguistic, pragmatic and semantic.

That is, a compromise- subconsciously, or predominantly subconsciously- is always reached in communication.

Upon selecting a specific word, the speaker instantly compromises the loss of excluding the effect of one of the chosen word’s potential equivalents.

Equipped with sound lexicon, speech is not only rendered natural and efficacious, but majorly original.

Authentic is a fundamental notion during vocabulary development in TEFL.

It would be more possible to believe a sentence stating “Alexandra has finely-shaped lips, sparkling eyes and a well-curved bone structure” rather than saying “Alexandra is beautiful”.

This effect surfaces because the first description is more likely to commit speakers into the discussion and engage their interest, as opposed to the second statement that, communicates the intended meaning, but is predictable- almost fabricated and possible to cause speaker’s disengagement soon.

Effortlessly, the statement is truthful, because it is substantiated.

Vocabulary learning is not a compartmentalized entity that should be conceptualized and taught as if it were an independent skill. 

Lexis is profoundly interconnected with grammar, syntax, semantics and pragmatics as well as extra-linguistic circumstances, i.e., the society, the time, expectations, the relation of people engaged in the communicative act. 

Throughout their second language education, students should realize that individual words mean virtually nothing.

The maxims of human communication permeate language use and this is also the case (predominantly) with the English Language as well.

The Grice’s four maxims are: Quantity, Quality, Relation/ Relevance, Manner.

Lexis is also interwoven with grammar, pragmatic and paralinguistic elements.

English Doublespeak

For the sake of communicative effect and precision, the following examples enlighten us into the realization that words mean more that they convey and the versatily that is inherent in English (and all human communication systems).

What the British Say…	What the British Mean….	What a Foreigner thinks they mean…
That is a very brave proposal	You are insane	He thinks I have courage
Quite Good	A bit disappointing	Quite Good
Very Interesting	This is clearly nonsense	They are impressed
I’ m sure it’ s my fault	It’s your fault	Why do they think it was their fault?
Fancy a quick pint?	Let’s get drunk	He wants a drink

 

Suppose a learner is familiarized with the semantic content (i.e. the meaning) of the afore-employed terms,

Will they succeed in communicating in each context?

Is mere vocabulary instruction (based on translation) a sustainable learning strategy?

Vocabulary Instruction at different learning stages

Vocabulary Instruction for advanced L2 (Proficient English User (Effective Operational C1, Mastery C2) :

C1 Effective Operational Proficiency English, C2: Mastery.

During advanced L2 levels and age groups, learners are satisfyingly autonomous and confident in learning.

Out of personal experience, they have internalized the need to expand their lexis.

The maturity of advanced levels allows for the processing of abstract vocabulary and the comprehension of complicated lexical items.

In practice, every chance for contextualization of instructed material could be effectuated.

 

1^st Vocabulary Strategy

It is an accepted principle that extensive L2 reading is good for vocabulary acquisition (Brown, 1994, chap 16; Grabe 1991; Nation, 1990; Swaffar, Arens & Byrnes, 1991).

It is prudent to establish a routine of exposing advanced L2 to contextualized employment of the instructed items.

It is practically verified and psycholinguistically attested that the human brain is conditioned to memorize in the form of narrative over lists, rather than in the form of “incidental learning” (i.e., picking up words during listening and reading activities).

As a consequence, grouping is a wise and dependable strategy for vocabulary instruction (irrespective of age and level).

Humans look for sense, cohesion and logical connection the same way they pursue food: instinctively.

After all, human mind loves stories.

One intricacy of the advanced (effective operational proficiency) and mastery levels though, is that L2 learners are expected to maneuver  amongst unrelated lexical items, barely granted the time to draw connections that ease vocabulary development.

The task of memorization and reproduction of context-free items feels counterintuitive;

Therefore, the target language lexical items could be structured upon thematic units.

2^nd Vocabulary Strategy

Emotional connection in learning is the utmost reliable facilitator in processing, understanding, imprinting the instructed items.

Emotional processing of advanced vocabulary leads to consolidation and long- term retention of new words.

The use of Humor

The employment of humor in teaching vocabulary is essential and multifaceted.

Before delving into the facilitation of absorption via the means of humor, it is imperative to clarify that the teacher should take under consideration the age appropriacy for the students’ response to humor.

It would feel awkward and discouraging to attempt a joke that leaves L2 learners unresponsive.

Still, failed jocular attempts might happen as part of the procedure.

Different age groups perceive and digest differently the qualities of humor, and this is a major point to respect.

“Humor and laughter may not provoke learning per se, but it fosters conditions conducing to learning” (Lujan, Dicarlo, 2016).

Furthermore, humoristic allusions and laugh-provoking situations have been proved to stimulate “multiple physiological systems that decrease levels of stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine and increase the activation of the mesolimbic dopaminergic reward system” (Lujan, Dicarlo, 2016).

The learners’ affective filter is lowered, almost a necessity for the stress-overwhelmed exam-preparation classes.

More significantly, humor is interlaced with emotion.

When people experience emotion, they tend to remember the experience, more intensely and in deeper detail.

The experience that has been linked with the employment of humor is more likely to be stored in the long-term memory (Lujan, Dicarlo, 2016).

3^rd Vocabulary Strategy

A balanced difficulty is also desirable;

Studies have found that when classroom material is rendered harder to absorb, pupils retain more of it over the long term, and understand it on a deeper level.

 Robert Bjork coined the term of “desirable difficulties” to describe this seemingly counterintuitive notion.

Indeed, inferred meanings are remembered slightly better than given meanings (Hulstijn, Hollander, Greidanus, 2004).

Inferred meaning: the meaning for which some effort has been exerted to be accessed.

4^th Vocabulary Strategy

Reoccurrence is also an imperative strategy for vocabulary instruction in the advanced ESL/EFL class.

Words appearing frequently in a text are more likely to be acquired than words occurring only once (Saragi, Nation & Meister, 1978; Krantz, 1991).

High-frequency appearance is related to easier retention of the lexical items over low frequency terms.

Consequentially, revision, differentiated input and reoccurrence of unknown words are reliable strategies towards establishing vocabulary development.

Practicing reoccurrence of the lexical items, the instructor should include and consider the broader uses of known uses.

An added, unknown function seems paradoxical if first encountered at later stages of ESL/EFL learning.

Synecdochical extension of known words is an intrinsic part of the language, though;

For instance, learners are acquainted with the meaning of “battery”, and yet embarrassment might arise in class when L2 learners are introduced to the meaning of “assault and battery”.

Similarly in the case of “bed”, when they are introduced to “bed of the ocean”.

Ø  It is intrinsic to implement various learning styles to secure inclusion of all learners: optical, audio-visual, kinaesthetic.

Strategies for Vocabulary Instruction during the Intermediate levels, English Independent User (Threshold, B1, Vantage B2):

Independent Users

B1 Intermediate English, B2 Upper Intermediate English.

The intermediate level L2 might be in need for greater amount of patience, it being a challenging learning stage.

New words emerge, or known words are now ascribed novel and frequently unimaginable meanings.

E.g: It might be learnt that pen, beyond the writing tool, carries the meaning for “an enclosed area for farm animals”, “a cell”, and a verb meaning “to enclose farm animals”.

Similarly, the term bank defines, beyond the financial institution, the “borders of the river”.  

Ignorance of additional meaning to well known words might lead to persistent misinterpretations.

Therefore, absorbing the individual terms, as well as the new function of the language might linger understanding, processing and retention of intermediate vocabulary.

This lingering period is neither passive nor void;

On the contrary, it is rich in active mental processing and meaningful workings.

Effective strategies for vocabulary input that recur throughout the courses help solidify new and irrefutably challenging words.

Eventually, word development becomes intuitive.

1^st Vocabulary Strategy

Chunking language

The concept of chunking is ascribed to Miller (1956) and it refers to the strategy for making more efficient use of short-term memory by breaking down large amounts of information.

It is suggested by Chase and Simon (1973) that the capacity of short-term (i.e. working) memory is limited to seven items, or chunks.

An industrious vocabulary strategy for the intermediate L2 would be therefore to build each unit upon a core of approximately seven newly instructed chunks that are to be absorbed by each one of the L2 learners.

A chunk can represent seven sentences, seven verses or seven lines.

Chunking comprises a promising notion, as the rough number of seven is manageable and easy to monitor on individual learners (even multiple times).

Mind that students with dyslexia or other learning challenges have a more limited working memory capacity to 3 or 4 items-and maybe the need for more time allocation.

2nd Vocabulary Strategy

Arranging vocabulary into semantic clusters of seven to ten related items rather than random lists of words enhances retention.

This is a consequence of the mind’s tendency to prefer memorizing into the form of narratives over isolated items that hold no clue of semantic connection amongst them.

For instance, when introducing vocabulary prior to a reading text, it is advisable to present a set of vocabulary words (around seven) that are related, (e.g. doctor, nurse, stethoscope, hospital, ward, health, injury, insurance) by content or context.

Furthermore, when learners derive a sense of reward from guessing correctly, this is substantial for their motivated continuation of the effort.

L2 learners are eager to rapidly associate the words with the core theme or context and easily store the vocabulary in their long-term memory.

In psycholinguistics subject, we were instructed that this is the brain function of priming.

The notion of white coat primes the notion of the hospital.

3^rd Vocabulary Strategy

Taking for granted that the intermediate levels are L2 learning groups constituted by ages fluctuating from 10 to 13 year-old (though not exclusively, if one considers late starters and adult L2 learners), visual-written combination offers as an effective pillar for vocabulary instruction.

Multimedia refers to a combination of words, sound and pictures (Moellers, Ketsman, Masmaliyeva, 2009).

An approach that is linked to the emotive facilitation of vocabulary instruction and retention.

Teaching with multimedia is comfortable and age-appropriate.

When lexical items are presented together with images, it fosters numerous cues and increases retention because the image and the word are dually coded (Moeller, Ketsman, Masmaliyeva, 2009).

The picture alludes to the word-word form, its meaning and particularities.

The combination of a text and visuals is more effective in facilitating vocabulary learning than definition of words alone (Akbulut, 2007; Nikolova, 2002, Jones & Plass; 2002).

It is a learner-friendly approach.

Multimedia can compensate for memory limitations among students with a lower capacity for remembering phonological information while reading a L2 text (Chun & Payne, 2004).

It is almost natural for intermediate level learners to decode and anticipate word meaning based on the imagery of the text.

Evocative (e.g. jocular, funny, unexpected combinations, puns) images can strengthen vocabulary retention for intermediate learners, especially in the long run, when prior-instructed lexical items are fading or tending to be forgotten.

One of the most effective ways to integrate multimedia in the language classroom is through the use of PowerPoint and the Apple Keynote.

4^th Vocabulary Strategy

Personal effort to access the meaning of the words and to incorporate it into speech production effectively solidifies L2 vocabulary acquisition.

The desired difficulty favors students’ individual involvement with the new vocabulary.

Ø  This is linked to the afore-mentioned principle of “desired difficulty”

Assignments and projects can tremendously assist into the conversion of the passive lexicon of intermediate students into active vocabulary, easy to encompass into spoken production of L2.

When the instructor is encountered with frustration “Why do they resist employing the words they already know”, the answer is much simpler, self-explanatory, rather than far-fetched.

Students do not employ the words they are instructed, maybe because they are offered minimal opportunity towards this end.

The end of all forms of education is to drive students towards independence and autonomy.

Students should regard assignments and projects an integral part of the L2 learning routine, wherein they can channel their personal understanding and relationship with the new lexical items.

Vocabulary Instruction during Junior L2 levels.

English Basic User (Breakthrough A1, Waystage A2): A1 Beginner, A2 Elementary English.

Junior ESL/EFL classrooms are deceptively considered easy in terms of vocabulary instruction and understanding.

This might hold true as the lexical items during the introductory L2 levels are predominantly concrete items that comprise the Young Learners’ known world.

Yet, in terms of authentic vocabulary, reception years pose a major challenge:  The familiarization of L2 learners with the cultural context of the L2 vocabulary.

For example, it might seem simple to present the concept of cheese to a Greek L2 student of junior levels.

L2 Young Learners draw a parallel to their known concept of Greek cheese.

But the conceptualization of the real Source Language meaning is partial or counterfeit.

Similarly, misconception might be formulated when introducing the adjective “rude”, “polite”, two conceptions that are notoriously different between the British and the Greek peoples.

Both expressions of rudeness and politeness are more esoteric for the target language (English) as compared to the respective Greek understanding of those behavioral qualities.

Vocabulary instruction that relies on the translation (localization teaching) approach conceals the risk of fostering a distorted notion to the L2 about their L2 and culture that is rather improbable to be later recovered and compensated.

 Greek cheese minimally resembles the equivalent dairy product consumed in the UK, and the same is true for a host of other lexical items, such as apples, school, house, taxi, tea or flower.

The age group of young learners is characterized by mental and linguistic flexibility, a capacity that, if taken into practical consideration can boost authentic vocabulary acquisition.

It is prudent to value this plasticity.

Early years comprise an ideal formulative stage wherein students can easily ingrain culturally-bound entities and retain them for life, because during the early years they mainly rely on their instincts rather than on acquired knowledge and skills.

Visual media and multimedia teaching technology is therefore a pillar to teaching vocabulary to junior levels of ESL/EFL classrooms.

During those critical stages of English learning, the emphasis should be leveraged on the authentic conceptualization of the lexical items rather than on the quantity of the words that the students can memorize.

Immersion and foreignization teaching strategies are productive among young learners who exhibit a unique mental flexibility and openness to novel notions.

References

1. The Essentials of Vocabulary Teaching: From Theory to Practice, Aleidine J. Moeller, Olha Ketsman, Leyla Masmaliyeva, Selected Papers from the 2009 Central States Conference, Crown Prints, 2009.

2.Harley, T., The Psychology of Language, from Data to Theory, Third Edition, Psychology Press, New York, 2008.

3.Lujan, H., Dicarlo, E., Humor Promotes Learning, Detroit, Michigan, 2016